Upgrading Red Hat Enterprise Linux / CentOS / Oracle Linux

RHEL/CentOS/Oracle Migration: Booting

Booting changes as you upgrade to more recent Linux distributions. The boot loader changes from GRUB 0.97 (or "Legacy GRUB") to GRUB2, bringing much more complex configuration. Perhaps even more significant, the init program has been replaced with the systemd daemon, queried and controlled with the systemctl command. Of all the enormous changes in Linux in the period 2007-2014, I think this is the biggest one. On top of these changes in Linux, your hardware has probably changed during this time, moving from BIOS to UEFI firmware.

The previous page provided an overview of the many significant changes you encounter through the RHEL/CentOS/Oracle Linux 6–7–8–9 migration path.

The U.S. Department of Defense Security requirements, the STIG or Security Technology Implementation Guide, varies not just from one operating system to the next, but from version to version. The STIG for RHEL 7 focuses on booting and logging. Ensuring that the kernel is always booted in a way to enable the Security-Enhanced Linux mechanism, and that there is adequate storage for the audit logs.

timeout 10
color black/cyan yellow/cyan
default 0

title Linux release-newer
	root (hd0,0)
	kernel (hd0,0)/vmlinuz-release-newer root=LABEL=/
	initrd /initrd-release-newer.img

title Linux release-older
	root (hd0,0)
	kernel (hd0,0)/vmlinuz-release-older root=LABEL=/
	initrd /initrd-release-older.img

### BEGIN /etc/grub.d/00_header ###
if [ -s $prefix/grubenv ]; then
  load_env
fi
if [ "${next_entry}" ] ; then
   set default="${next_entry}"
   set next_entry=
   save_env next_entry
   set boot_once=true
else
   set default="0"
fi

if [ x"${feature_menuentry_id}" = xy ]; then
  menuentry_id_option="--id"
else
  menuentry_id_option=""
fi

export menuentry_id_option

if [ "${prev_saved_entry}" ]; then
  set saved_entry="${prev_saved_entry}"
  save_env saved_entry
  set prev_saved_entry=
  save_env prev_saved_entry
  set boot_once=true
fi

function savedefault {
  if [ -z "${boot_once}" ]; then
    saved_entry="${chosen}"
    save_env saved_entry
  fi
}

function load_video {
  if [ x$feature_all_video_module = xy ]; then
    insmod all_video
  else
    insmod efi_gop
    insmod efi_uga
    insmod ieee1275_fb
    insmod vbe
    insmod vga
    insmod video_bochs
    insmod video_cirrus
  fi
}

if loadfont unicode ; then
  set gfxmode=auto
  load_video
  insmod gfxterm
fi
terminal_output gfxterm
insmod part_msdos 
insmod ext2
set root='hd0,msdos1'
if [ x$feature_platform_search_hint = xy ]; then
  search --no-floppy --fs-uuid --set=root --hint-bios=hd0,msdos1 --hint-efi=hd0,msdos1 --hint-baremetal=ahci0,msdos1  1d2e37f5-1a3d-419a-996e-d7fd5d876a75
else
  search --no-floppy --fs-uuid --set=root 1d2e37f5-1a3d-419a-996e-d7fd5d876a75
fi
insmod gfxmenu
loadfont ($root)/grub2/themes/maggy/MageiaLogo-Bold-16.pf2
loadfont ($root)/grub2/themes/maggy/MageiaLogo-Bold-20.pf2
loadfont ($root)/grub2/themes/maggy/MageiaLogo-Bold-28.pf2
loadfont ($root)/grub2/themes/maggy/MageiaLogo-Regular-20.pf2
insmod png
set theme=($root)/grub2/themes/maggy/theme.txt
export theme
set timeout=10
### END /etc/grub.d/00_header ###

### BEGIN /etc/grub.d/10_linux ###
menuentry 'Linux release-newer' {
	set gfxpayload=text
	insmod gzio
	insmod part_msdos 
	insmod ext2
	set root='hd0,msdos1'
	if [ x$feature_platform_search_hint = xy ]; then
	  search --no-floppy --fs-uuid --set=root --hint-bios=hd0,msdos1 --hint-efi=hd0,msdos1 --hint-baremetal=ahci0,msdos1  1d2e37f5-1a3d-419a-996e-d7fd5d876a75
	else
	  search --no-floppy --fs-uuid --set=root 1d2e37f5-1a3d-419a-996e-d7fd5d876a75
	fi
	linux	/vmlinuz-release-newer root=UUID=62dfc4a4-86c2-4ebf-aaa3-442ecc740122 ro noacpi nofb 
	initrd	/initrd-release-newer.img
}
menuentry 'Linux release-older' {
	set gfxpayload=text
	insmod gzio
	insmod part_msdos 
	insmod ext2
	set root='hd0,msdos1'
	if [ x$feature_platform_search_hint = xy ]; then
	  search --no-floppy --fs-uuid --set=root --hint-bios=hd0,msdos1 --hint-efi=hd0,msdos1 --hint-baremetal=ahci0,msdos1  1d2e37f5-1a3d-419a-996e-d7fd5d876a75
	else
	  search --no-floppy --fs-uuid --set=root 1d2e37f5-1a3d-419a-996e-d7fd5d876a75
	fi
	linux	/vmlinuz-release-older root=UUID=62dfc4a4-86c2-4ebf-aaa3-442ecc740122 ro noacpi nofb 
	initrd	/initrd-release-older.img
}
### END /etc/grub.d/10_linux ###

### BEGIN /etc/grub.d/20_linux_xen ###
### END /etc/grub.d/20_linux_xen ###

### BEGIN /etc/grub.d/20_ppc_terminfo ###
### END /etc/grub.d/20_ppc_terminfo ###

### BEGIN /etc/grub.d/30_os-prober ###
### END /etc/grub.d/30_os-prober ###

### BEGIN /etc/grub.d/40_custom ###
# This file provides an easy way to add custom menu entries.  Simply type the
# menu entries you want to add after this comment.  Be careful not to change
# the 'exec tail' line above.
### END /etc/grub.d/40_custom ###

### BEGIN /etc/grub.d/41_custom ###
if [ -f  ${config_directory}/custom.cfg ]; then
  source ${config_directory}/custom.cfg
elif [ -z "${config_directory}" -a -f  $prefix/custom.cfg ]; then
  source $prefix/custom.cfg;
fi
### END /etc/grub.d/41_custom ###

GRUB now uses a kernel line about twice the length of that in RHEL/CentOS/Oracle Linux 5.*, many more parameters are passed to the kernel at boot time.

Starting with RHEL 6 GRUB uses UUID rather than LABEL to specify the root file system, and adds several parameters specifying whether it is on LVM or encrypted through LUKS or on NFS or other network-attached storage.

The old SVR4 init has been replaced twice now.

Systemd is significantly more capable than Upstart or classic init, with a corresponding increase in complexity. See my page on Linux booting and process control for the rather complicated details on this.

There's much more to it than this, but here's what an administrator sees day-to-day:

SVR4 init on RHEL 5:
One file /etc/inittab configures the init program as to what run level to enter by default and what it takes to get there. Other than starting multiple virtual consoles with text login in run levels 3 and 5, and starting a graphical login in run level 5, it says to use the directory /etc/rc[0-6].d/ corresponding to the target run level. That directory will contain symbolic links pointing to the collection of boot scripts in /etc/init.d/. Each link has the same name as the actual script, preceded with either K (to kill) or S (to start) and a two-digit number to impose order. You use the chkconfig program to enable or disable services, it reads specially coded comments in the comment block at the top of the boot script to specify which run levels to start and stop the service and at what numerical order position. You directly run the boot script /etc/init.d/servicename to stop, start, or restart it right now.

Upstart on RHEL 6:
Very similar to SVR4 init as far as configuration and operation goes. The exception is that /etc/inittab is now almost empty. Its functionality has been expanded and moved into the files /etc/sysconfig/init and /etc/init/*.

Systemd on RHEL 7 and 8:
This is very different! Instead of run levels, in which only 1 (maintenance or rescue), 3 (text-only, server) and 5 (graphics, workstation) are useful, it uses "targets". The commonly used one correspond to the traditional run levels 3 and 5, but you can boot or transition into any combination of the targets found in /lib/systemd/system/*.target. Very few boot scripts remain in /etc/init.d/. You use the program systemctl to query the current overall system state, to query the state of individual services, to control a service right now, and to enable or disable it for the future.

Simplified "Phrase Book" of Equivalent Commands

runlevel

ls /etc/rcN.d

systemctl get-default
systemctl
systemctl -a
systemctl list-dependencies
systemctl list-sockets
systemctl status crond sshd httpd ...

grep initdefault /etc/inittab

systemctl get-default

vim /etc/inittab

systemctl set-default newtarget

ls /etc/rc.d/init.d
chkconfig --list

systemctl list-unit-files

/etc/init.d/xyz stop
/etc/init.d/xyz start
/etc/init.d/xyz restart
/etc/init.d/xyz reload

systemctl stop xyz
systemctl start xyz
systemctl restart xyz
systemctl reload xyz

chkconfig --add xyz
chkconfig xyz on
chkconfig --levels 345 xyz on

chkconfig --del xyz
chkconfig xyz off

systemctl enable xyz

systemctl disable xyz

more /etc/init.d/xyz
ls /etc/rc$(runlevel | awk '{print $2}').d/
/etc/init.d/xyz status
grep xyz /var/log/messages
ls /var/run/xyz
cat /var/run/xyz
ps axuww | egrep 'PID|xyz'

systemctl show xyz

init 0
halt
poweroff
shutdown -h now -t 0

init 6
reboot
shutdown -r now -t 0

systemctl halt
systemctl poweroff

systemctl reboot

init 1
init 3
init 5

systemctl isolate rescue.target
systemctl isolate multi-user.target
systemctl isolate graphical.target

Yes, there are differences in exactly which services are started in the various versions, but it's made much more complex given the choices of installing a workstation, a server, a server with graphics, and so on. Know how to check which services are started by default, and which ones are currently running.

This page will help you get through a migration to a newer Linux release. For more detail, see my dedicated page on how Linux boots.

The next page is on logging, which really changed with the appearance of journalctl.